Shopping Malls Essay Example

Shopping Malls Essay Shopping Malls have been in existence for years. The first purposefully mall built was located in St. Petersburg in 1785. This mall consisted of hundreds of shops that were accessible under one roof. The Oxford Covered Market in Oxford, England was opened in 1774 and continues to be a service to the country. The Arcade of Cleveland was one of the first indoor shopping malls in the United States. This shopping mall set the standards for the shopping malls to come. Malls have been a significant part of our lives and are now a part of our culture. This paper will illustrate how three types of malls are in existence in todays society.Shopping has become a vital part of our culture. Shopping malls were originally designed to attract customers. It now represents more than shopping. Shopping malls represents a way of living, and designed to be both a place to purchase merchandise and also for recreational activity. The designers have created an atmosphere that has truly represented our cult ure. They designed three types of malls that accommodates diversity amongst individuals. Individuals have the opportunity to experience either a traditional shopping mall, a strip mall, or an outlet mall.In a traditional mall, individuals are entirely enclosed and surrounded by a variety of merchants in a contained and secure shopping environment. These types of malls consists of department stores, stand-alone stores, kiosks, and food courts. Over the years, these malls have developed a new attraction to the eyes of all ages. They have become a place for entertainment. The traditional mall has been afforded movie theaters, large chain restaurants, various skating rinks, merry-go-rounds and trains, andindoor playgrounds. These types of malls attract individuals from all walks of life and ages that like to not only shop but also enjoy a night at the movies or while shopping, allowing their children to have a blast on the train or playground.A strip mall is an open area where there are several stores located in that specific area that share a common parking lot. Strip malls are generally located in towns and cities that are very accessible to nearby neighborhoods and other strip malls. These types of malls have stores such as grocery stores, dollar stores, video rental stores, and bookstores. A strip mall could also have a well known large store like Wal-Mart or Target. These are usually called a power center. Also located around the strip malls are fast food restaurants, cafes, and coffee-shops like Starbucks. Strip malls are great for convenience. These types of malls are generally sought out if you need to get everyday necessities such as food, general items, and simple entertainment options.On the other hand, there is the outlet mall. In the past, an outlet store was attached to a factory or warehouse. At that time, customers were allowed to watch how the products were made and then able to purchase them in the adjoining store. Presently, outlet malls are eit her in an enclosed environment or an open area outside. The stores are typically name brand stores like Guess, Levis, and Hollister. The outlet type of store have reduced their prices on their products for various reasons such as past season merchandise or overstock in their traditional stores. Presently, outlet malls are very popular due to severals reasons such as accessibility and the economy. These types of malls generally attract all types of individuals at all age levels.Malls do standardize the way of shopping by bringing together all the wants and need of our society. Malls have been designed to attract consumers in different ways. They serve as a place to purchase products and services that needed and wanted. They also serve as social functions that provide entertainment for consumers of all ages. Malls represent more than shopping. They represent a way of living, and have created an atmosphere that represent our culture and the our way of life.

5 Top part-time jobs for 2018

5 Top part-time jobs for 2018 We spend a lot of time thinking about our full-time careers, and what we want those to be, but sometimes what you need is a part-time job. Part-time jobs can be a way to manage an employment gap while you figure out your next career move, or it can be a way to test the waters in a particular field, or it might be a side hustle to make more money. The flexibility of a part-time job is usually the best part. So what are the top jobs for 2018 if you’re looking for a part-time gig? Let’s explore 5 that are worth exploring.1. Fitness InstructorWe live in a fitness-crazed world right now, with debates raging about CrossFit vs. SoulCycle or whether you really need to build an American Ninja Warrior gym in your backyard. But for most of us, fitness comes from our local gyms and community classes. That’s where fitness trainers and instructors enter the picture. These teachers lead classes in various types of fitness techniques (like yoga Zumba, or aerobics), or act as per sonal trainers on a more limited or one-to-one basis to help clients build fitness or lose weight. Fitness trainers can typically make their own schedules, scheduling classes or client appointments as they prefer, making it a solid part-time opportunity.What you’ll need: First and foremost, you should be pretty fit yourself, and also knowledgeable about anatomy, physiology, and safety. Trainers and instructors who specialize in a particular area (like yoga) often undergo advanced training, as well. There’s typically no minimum degree necessary to be a fitness instructor, but many employers are starting to prefer an associate’s degree in kinesiology (or a similar field), plus certification by an accredited training program.What it pays: According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), fitness trainers and instructors make a median annual salary of $38,160 (full-time), or $18.34 per hour. This can vary depending on your hours and your specialty.For more on how to snag fitness jobs:How to Become an Athletic Trainer2. Registered NurseIf you’re looking for a flexible job in the healthcare field, you might want to consider nursing. Registered nurses (RNs) coordinate and provide direct patient care, assess patient condition, record patients’ medical data, administer treatments and medication as prescribed by a physician, develop treatment plans, operate and monitor medical equipment, perform diagnostic tests, and educate patients and their families on follow-up care. Nurses can be found in any facility that offers healthcare, including hospitals, schools doctors’ offices, home services, nursing homes, clinics, or health-focused government agencies.But is nursing really a part-time field, you ask? The short answer: it can be. Once you’ve got your nursing degree and your certification, there are nursing jobs that let you set your own hours, or work on short-term assignments. One major example is travel nursing, wh ere you can accept temporary or part-time gigs away from home, setting your own work agenda.What you’ll need: RNs typically hold a bachelor’s degree in nursing (BSN), an associate’s degree in nursing (ADN), or a certificate from an accredited nursing program. Every state requires nurses to be licensed, so be sure to check your own state’s requirements for licensing (including any standardized tests like the NCLEX).What it pays: According to the BLS, registered nurses make a median annual salary of $68,450, or $32.91 per hour.For more on how to snag registered nurse jobs:Create A Winning Registered Nurse Resume!How Long Does it Take to Become a Nurse?3. Retail AssociateWhether you’re interested in building a longer career in retail or merely finding something in the meantime, working in retail can be the king of â€Å"right now† jobs. It’s a way to build experience, but if you’re not really interested in working in the industry for the rest of your working life, it’s a job that doesn’t require a ton of investment up front (education or certification). Retail is also one of the few industries that hires seasonal workers, which can be a great way to earn extra money over the holidays.Retail associates are the front-line workers in stores, working out on the floor to make sure that shelves are stocked, customers are being helped, sales are being made, and things are running smoothly. It’s typically an hourly job, worked in shifts set by the store’s management. Working nights, weekends, and holidays is pretty common in most retail stores, so it’s a job you can work around other jobs or obligations.What you’ll need: There’s no official education level needed to become a retail associate, but many companies prefer high school graduates (or equivalent). You should have great customer service skills and be punctual, patient, and great at organization. Strong math sk ills are often a bonus, for jobs that involve cashiering or inventory-taking. Most stores provide on-the-job training for new employees.What it pays: According to the BLS, sales associates make a median annual salary of $22,900 per year, or $11.01 per hour. This can vary depending on experience and seniority.For more on how to snag retail associate jobs:6 Job Skills You Need to Be a Sales AssociateHow to Write a Perfect Sales Associate Resume (Examples Included)4. Rideshare DriverIf you’ve got a great driving record, a car in good shape, and an independent streak, becoming a rideshare driver could be a great part-time option. Working for livery companies or app-driven companies like Uber or Lyft, you’re transporting people from point A to point B- but on your own schedule. Most rideshare companies allow you to decide when you work and when you’re off duty. And if you’re interested in night owl shifts, you can make good money (plus tips) getting people hom e safely from work, bars and clubs, or other nighttime activities.What you’ll need: A valid driver’s license and a clean driving record. Most companies require that potential drivers pass a background screening, as well as a vehicle inspection to make sure your car is clean and in good working order.What it pays: The median national hourly rate for rideshare drivers is $19.04, but drivers can make up to $30 an hour, plus tips, depending on how many fares they’re picking up. It can also vary according to where you live.For more on how to snag rideshare driver jobs:10 Jobs Where You Can Work OvernightTop 5 Jobs in the Midwest5. Warehouse WorkerAt this moment in time, the world belongs to e-tail companies like Amazon- we just happen to live in it. Companies that warehouse and ship mass quantities of products are busier than ever these days, with large shipping centers and new hubs popping up all over the country to cut shipping times and costs as much as humanly po ssible. These centers typically have a number of part-time openings for shipping and warehouse associates who receive freight, process it, inventory it, process and pack orders, and ship it all back out.This is a job that can be a good fit if you like to work with your hands or you have Tetris-like organizational skills. It’s very physical, though, so most of the opportunities in this field are open to people who can lift heavy weights, operate heavy equipment, and tolerate long shifts potentially on your feet. Because the work is typically shift-based, you will likely be able to find shifts that work well with other life or work obligations.What you’ll need: Most companies require a high school diploma (or equivalent) to work in a warehouse. You should also be in good physical shape, with the stamina to work on your feet and lift heavy objects for hours at a time.What it pays: According to PayScale.com, warehouse workers make a median hourly rate of $12.69.For more on how to snag warehouse worker jobs:How to Become a Forklift OperatorTop Opportunities in the Online Retail Revolution6 top retail jobs this holiday season and how to get themWhatever your needs, a part-time job can be exactly what you need to boost your income while also getting you necessary experience and giving you a more flexible schedule than the 9-to-5 grind.

Innvations under Globalization in Latin America Research Paper

Innvations under Globalization in Latin America - Research Paper Example Business endeavor in the connection of neoliberal change is vividly outlined on account of Latin America inside the setting of the "Washington Consensus." The Washington Consensus was created throughout the last some piece of the 1980s. The thought behind it was to arrange strategy creators in the creating scene, and especially to help powerless Latin American economies recuperate from the obligation emergency. So dependent upon this, the defenders of globalization think of it as a positive sensation in all regards and the adversaries think of it as the dangerous component of local and national societies because of beating the free enterprise and the increment in financial and political sizes. Due to this, the outcomes of globalization on distinctive parts of human life and diverse matters lead to the disintegration of understandings. The point of this part is to inspect the connection between globalization and improvement. So first the idea of globalization and its source are audite d and after that for better examination of this connection, the impact of globalization on diverse parts of development might be dissected. The creators accept that globalization lessens development emulating the diminishment of assortment in diverse parts of the social order including monetary, social, political and social sizes and slant to coordination and union which has a negative impact on enhancement. The term "globalization" has not an agreeable importance and distinctive definitions are given to it affected by ideological foundations of analysts. Some think about globalization the same as correspondence unrest, different has thought of it as a manifestation of post innovation and some different has viewed it as another type of states without outskirt. The hopeful perspective to this sensation has thought of it as an element for development, peace and companionship and the vicinity of countries, likewise richness of endowments and the negative perspective equivalents it to e mergency neediness and the vanishing of powerless groups and unequal rivalry.

World after the Zombie Apocalypse Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

World after the Zombie Apocalypse - Essay Example Different preparedness strategies were communicated to countries through the internet, novels, films, scientific advice, and religion advices (Zombie Apocalypse). People had different perceptions about the zombie apocalypse. Some believed this would happen, and therefore took the advice seriously, however others thought of it as a prank, and did not take any precautions. Things greatly changed when this became a reality. The zombies invasion came, and humans were devastated. Despite the human underestimation of the zombies, terming them as weak and defenceless, the high-tech defence systems of humans did not count during the zombie apocalypse (Zombieland). Today, the effects of this deadly zombie apocalypse remain. Presently, the year 2130 bears a wretched and pathetic United States of America, which is characterised by famine, poor governance, poor sanitation, poor economy, and poor international relations. Survivors of this zombie apocalypse in the United States of America are countable. These regard themselves lucky to have survived such a torturous experience. However, it will be difficult for them to adapt to the life they were used to before. All America reads misery. Clouds of death fill the American skies. Sadness covers the faces of the survivors. It is a devastating, miserable life.

Eastern Religion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Eastern Religion - Essay Example The reason why these rules are so important is that they have both literal usefulness in preserving the health of believers and symbolic usefulness such as forging unity between them in a potentially hostile world. A recent review of the effects of religiously motivated food habits on health concluded that â€Å"dietary restrictions, with the exception of strict vegetarianism (vegan diet) of most of the religions might be substantially effective in preventing, treating or controlling a disease† (Sarri et al., 2006, p. 18). Clearly there is a good medical reason to avoid some meat and dairy products in hot countries, where these foods harbour disease. Interestingly, the same article points out that there are also psychological and social benefits in participating in these rituals, which supports the idea that it is not just avoidance of foods that is beneficial, but the way a whole religious community sets itself apart and binds itself together through its food-related rituals. The very complex laws in Judaism have also another purpose, namely to show obedience to God, and to ingrain self-control (Kashrut article). The same is true of the strict rules of Ramadan for Muslims. Clearly there are physical, moral and social reasons why food prohibitions are practised in all major world religions and that is why they are so important. Sarri, Katerina O., Higgins, Siobhan and Kafatos, Anthony G. â€Å"Are Religions â€Å"Healthy?† A Review on Religious Recommendations on Diet and Lifestyle.† Journal of Human Ecology Special Issue 14, (2006), pp. 7-20. Web. [Accessed October 27,

Role of Medicinal Plants for Health

Role of Medicinal Plants for Health General The use of natural products with therapeutic properties is as ancient as human civilization. For a very long time, mineral, plant and animal products were the main sources of drugs [1].The use of complementary medicine to alleviate and improve health conditions is increasing in developed countries [2]. New medicinal plants from different parts of the world are being investigated with this purpose in mind [3]. Although the utilization of botanicals has increased in the western world, there is a lack of information about mechanisms of action and potential differences among species within the same genus [4]. Now-a-days, several plants have been identified for their anticancer and anti-inflammatory compounds. Scientific experiments on the anticancer properties of plants and their components have been detected. Herbal medicines have been the basis of treatment and cure for various diseases and physiological conditions in traditional methods practiced such as ayurveda, unani and siddha. However no systematic studies were conducted to evaluate the efficacy and safety of the formulations from the plant were undertaken. Also no attempts were made to isolate and identify the active principles involved in these effects [5]. As an evolutionary response plants were obliged to produce and store a wide range of organic molecules. These substances are usually termed as secondary metabolites (SM). Some of these compounds are involved in the survival of the plants as a defense mechanism against natural enemies. Many SM could actively interact with targets in the human body inducing a bioactivity of interest [6]. The bioactive compounds of medicinal plants are used as anti-diabetic, chemotherapeutic, anti-inflammatory, anti-arthritic agents where no satisfactory cure is present in modern medicines. The use of plants for medicinal purposes dates back to antiquity because they contain components of therapeutic value [7]. Medicinal plants are cheaper and more accessible to most of the population in the world. The acceptance of traditional medicine as an alternative form of health care and the development of microbial resistance to the available antibiotics has led researchers to investigate various therapeutic uses of medicinal plants [8]. Therefore, the quest for plants with medicinal properties continues to receive attention as scientists are in need of plants, particularly of ethno botanical significance for a complete range of biological activities, which ranges from antibiotic to anti-cancerous [9]. Bangladesh features a sub-tropical climate and low-lying landmass largely adjacent to extensive river deltas. The country comprises very fertile soils and is home to some rare ecosystems such as the Sundarbans mangrove forests. Given the fertile plains and high population density, the indigenous vegetation has mostly given way to cropland and extensive cultivation. Today, almost 60% of the landmass is used for farming, which is a global maximum value. However, originally large parts of Bangladesh featured tropical forests and marshy jungle with highly bio-diverse flora being also an excellent source for medicinal plants. The Bangladeshi traditional medicine is a unique conglomerate of different ethnomedical influences. Due to the geographic location and sociocultural characteristics of the country, it involves traditionally rooted elements influenced by local indigenous people and close-by Indian Ayurveda and Unani medicine [10, 11]. Given its inexpensive, easily accessible and well-established health services, the use of traditional medicine is an integral part of public health services in Bangladesh with its providers being deeply embedded within the local community [12-14]. Recent data suggest that the utilization of traditional medicine health services in Bangladesh is widespread [15] and plays a crucial role in providing health care for poor people, people in rural areas and for tribal people [16]. Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of medicinal plants The anti-oxidative activity has been confirmed contributing kinds of cancer and inflammatory preventions for its multiple functional roles. The production of oxidants is a typical event associated with aerobic metabolism. When oxygen is supplied in excess or its reduction is insufficient, reactive oxygen species or free radicals such as superoxide anions, hydroxyl radicals and hydrogen peroxide are generated [17]. Accumulation of the free radicals in body organs or tissues can cause oxidative damage to biomolecules and membranes of cell, eventually leading to many chronic diseases, such as inflammatory, cancer, diabetes, aging, cardiac dysfunction and other degenerative diseases [18]. In the last 50 years, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of extracts from medicinal or food plants have been extensively investigated. Many pharmacological studies have shown that extracts of some antioxidant plant possess anti-inflammatory, anti-allergic, anti-tumor, anti-bacterial, anti-muta genic and anti-viral activities to a greater or lesser extent. Researchers reported that intake of fruits, vegetables and other foods having high antioxidant activity has been associated with reduced risks of cancer, cardiovascular disease, diabetes and other diseases [17]. Trouillas et al. investigated the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-proliferative properties of sixteen French herbal tea and found some herbs exhibited high antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-proliferative activities [19]. Antioxidant activities in twenty traditional anti-inflammatory herbs extracts were investigated. The results suggested that the anti-inflammatory activities of these extracts could be explained, at least in part, by their antioxidant properties [20]. Free radicals liberated from phagocyte cells are important in inflammatory processes, because they are implicated in the activation of nuclear factor kB, which induces the transcription of inflammatory cytokines and cyclooxygenase-2 [21 ]. Free radicals and oxidative stress Reactive oxygen species (ROS) is a term that encompasses all highly reactive, oxygen containing molecules, including free radicals. Types of ROS include the hydroxyl radical, the superoxide anion radical, hydrogen peroxide, singlet oxygen, nitric oxide radical, hypochlorite radical, and various lipid peroxides. All are capable of reacting with membrane lipids, nucleic acids, proteins and enzymes, and other small molecules, resulting in cellular damage. ROS are generated by a number of pathways. Most of the oxidants produced by cells occur as: A consequence of normal aerobic metabolism: approximately 90% of the oxygen utilized by the cell is consumed by the mitochondrial electron transport system. Oxidative burst from phagocytes (white blood cells) as part of the mechanism by which bacteria and viruses are killed, and by which foreign proteins (antigens) are denatured. Xenobiotic metabolism, i.e., detoxification of toxic substances. Consequently, things like vigorous exercise, which accelerates cellular metabolism; chronic inflammation, infections, and other illnesses; exposure to allergens and the presence of leaky gut syndrome; and exposure to drugs or toxins such as cigarette smoke, pollution, pesticides, and insecticides may all contribute to an increase in the bodys oxidant load [22]. Most reactive oxygen species are generated as by-products during mitochondrial electron transport. In addition ROS are formed as necessary intermediates of metal catalyzed oxidation reactions. Atomic oxygen has two unpaired electrons in separate orbits in its outer electron shell. This electron structure makes oxygen susceptible to radical formation. The sequential reduction of oxygen through the addition of electrons leads to the formation of a number of ROS including: superoxide; hydrogen peroxide; hydroxyl radical; hydroxyl ion; and nitric oxide. Free radicals and other ROS are derived either from normal essential metabolic processes in the human body or from external sources such as exposure to X-rays, ozone, cigarette smoking, air pollutants, and industrial chemicals. Free radical formation occurs continuously in the cells as a consequence of both enzymatic and non-enzymatic reactions. Enzymatic reactions, which serve as source of free radicals, include those involved in the respiratory chain, in phagocytosis, in prostaglandin synthesis, and in the cytochrome P-450 system. Free radicals can also be formed in non-enzymatic reactions of oxygen with organic compounds as well as those initiated by ionizing reactions. Some internally generated sources of free radicals are Mitochondria, Xanthine oxidase, Peroxisomes, Inflammation, Phagocytosis, Arachidonate pathways, Exercise, Ischemia/reperfusion injury etc. Some externally generated sources of free radicals are- Cigarette smoke, Environmental pollutants, Radiation, Certain drugs, pesticides, Industrial solvents, Ozone etc. Normally, cells defend themselves against ROS damage with enzymes such as alpha-1-microglobulin, superoxide dismutases, catalases, lactoperoxidases, glutathione peroxidases and peroxiredoxins. Small molecule antioxidants such as ascorbic acid (vitamin C), tocopherol (vitamin E), uric acid, and glutathione also play important roles as cellular antioxidants. In a similar manner, polyphenol antioxidants assist in preventing ROS damage by scavenging free radicals. In contrast, the antioxidant ability of the extracellular space is less e.g., the most important plasma antioxidant in humans is uric acid. Effects of ROS on cell metabolism are well documented in a variety of species. These include not only roles in apoptosis (programmed cell death) but also positive effects such as the induction of host defense genes and mobilization of ion transport systems. This implicates them in control of cellular function. In particular, platelets involved in wound repair and blood homeostasis release ROS to recruit additional platelets to sites of injury. These also provide a link to the adaptive immune system via the recruitment of leukocytes. Reactive oxygen species are implicated in cellular activity to a variety of inflammatory responses including cardiovascular disease. They may also be involved in hearing impairment via cochlear damage induced by elevated sound levels, in ototoxicity of drugs such as cisplatin, and in congenital deafness in both animals and humans. ROS are also implicated in mediation of apoptosis or programmed cell death and ischemic injury. Specific examples include stroke and heart attack. All the biological molecules present in our body are at risk of being attacked by free radicals. Such damaged molecules can impair cell functions and even lead to cell death eventually resulting in diseased states. In recent years it has become apparent that the oxidation of lipids, or lipid peroxidation, is a crucial step in the pathogenesis of several disease states in adult and infant patients. Lipid peroxidation is a process generated naturally in small amounts in the body, mainly by the effect of several reactive oxygen species (hydroxyl radical, hydrogen peroxide etc.). It can also be generated by the action of several phagocytes. These reactive oxygen species readily attack the polyunsaturated fatty acids of the fatty acid membrane, initiating a self-propagating chain reaction. The destruction of membrane lipids and the end-products of such lipid peroxidation reactions are especially dangerous for the viability of cells, even tissues [23-25]. Membrane lipids present in subcellular organelles are highly susceptible to free radical damage. Lipids when reacted with free radicals can undergo the highly damaging chain reaction of lipid peroxidation (LP) leading to both direct and indirect effects. During LP a large number of toxic byproducts are also formed that can have effects at a site away from the area of generation, behaving as second messengers. The damage caused by LP is highly detrimental to the functioning of the cell [26]. Lipid peroxidation is a free radical mediated process. Initiation of a peroxidative sequence is due to the attack by any species, which can abstract a hydrogen atom from a methylene group (CH2), leaving behind an unpaired electron on the carbon atom (à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢CH). The resultant carbon radical is stabilized by molecular rearrangement to produce a conjugated diene, which then can react with an oxygen molecule to give a lipid peroxyl radical (LOOà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢). These radicals can further abstract hydrogen atoms from other lipid molecules to form lipid hydroperoxides (LOOH) and at the same time propagate LP further. The process of LP, gives rise to many products of toxicological interest like malondialdehyde (MDA), 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE) and various 2-alkenals. Isoprostanes are unique products of lipid peroxidation of arachidonic acid and recently tests such as mass spectrometry and ELISA-assay kits are available to detect isoprostanes [27]. Oxidation of proteins by ROS/RNS can generate a range of stable as well as reactive products such as protein hydroperoxides that can generate additional radicals particularly upon interaction with transition metal ions. Although most oxidized proteins that are functionally inactive are rapidly removed, some can gradually accumulate with time and thereby contribute to the damage associated with ageing as well as various diseases. Lipofuscin, an aggregate of peroxidized lipids and proteins accumulates in lysosomes of aged cells and brain cells of patients with Alzheimers disease [28]. Inflammation Inflammation is one of the body unique mechanisms that help body to protect itself against infection, burn, toxic chemicals, allergens or other noxious stimuli [29]. It is a body defense reaction in order to eliminate or limit the spread of injurious agent [30]. The process is created by immune cells invading the tissue like an army in full battle mode [31]. There are various components of inflammatory reaction that can contribute to the associated symptoms and tissue injury [30]. During inflammation, innate cells and molecules are usually stimulated to isolate, destroy infectious agents and repair tissue, or sometimes the adaptive immune system is also stimulated [32]. Consequently, the mechanism works in a cascade, where the inflammation is often triggered by circulating immune complexes that enter tissues [31]. Principally, inflammation is manifested by pain, swelling, redness band loss of function in the afflicted tissue [31, 33]. Saladin (2007) categorized process of inflammation into three major processes; mobilization of the bodys defenses, containment and destruction of pathogens, and tissue clean up and repair [34]. While Mahat and Patil (2007) classified the process into three phases; the first phase is caused by an increase in vascular permeability, the second one by infiltration of leukocytes and the third one by granuloma formation [30]. The inflammatory response is initiated by circulating proteins and blood cells when they contact invaders in the tissue. Microbial invaders that lodge in body tissue and begin to proliferated triggered inflammatory response [33]. Bacterial products interact with plasma factors and cells to produce agents that attract neutrophils to the infected area (chemotaxis). The chemotactic agents, which are part of a large family of chemokines, include a component of the complement system (C5a), histamine, kinins, leukotrienes, and polypeptides from lymphocytes, mast cells, and basophils [35]. The neutrophils also produce oxidants and release granular constituents comprising of lytic enzymes performing important role in inflammatory injury [36]. The innate immune system contributes to inflammation by activating the alternative and lechitin-binding complement pathways, attracting and activating phagocytic cells that secrete cytokines and chemokines, activating NK cells, altering vas. The result would firstly be increased in blood flow to the affected tissue which accelerates the delivery of immune system element to the site [33]. The vasodilation would later cause enlarged capillaries and lead to redness (erythema) as well as increase in temperature, which for an influx of fluid and cells, contributing to swelling [32]. Saladin (2007) explained that the increased in blood flow also washes toxin and metabolic wastes from the tissue rapidly. In addition, vasoactive chemicals cause endothelial cells of the blood capillaries to separate a little, widening the intracellular cleft between them and increasing capillary permeability that ease the movement of fluid, leukocytes, and plasma proteins from the bloodstream into the surrounding tissue [34]. In the area of injury, many of the neutrophils enter the tissues. As neutrophils encounter bacteria, they avidly phagocytize, digest and destroy them. Neutrophils also recruit macrophages and additional neutrophils by secreting cytokines [33]. Activated macrophages and T cells in the inflamed tissue also secrete cytokines called colony stimulation factors, which promotes the production of more leukocytes by the red bone marrow. Within a few hours of inflammation, neutrophilia (the rise in the neutrophil count in blood) would occur [37]. Then, the neutrophils are attracted to the endothelial surface by selectins, and they roll along it. They bind firmly to neutrophil adhesion molecules of the integrin family. They next insinuate themselves through the walls of the capillaries between endothelial cells by a process called diapedesis [35]. Leukocytes adhere loosely to the selectins and slowly tumble along the endothelium, sometimes coating it so thick that they obstruct blood flow. This adherence to the vessel wall is called margination [38]. Later, the fibrinogens are filtered into the tissue fluid clots in area adjacent to the injury, forming a sticky mesh that sequesters bacteria and other microbes [34]. This is caused by release of chemicals from tissues and migrating cells. Most strongly implicated are the prostaglandins (PGs), leukotrienes (LTs), histamine, bradykinin, platelet- activating factor (PAF) and interleukin-1 [39]. Prostaglandin is implicated in inducing the production of various chemo-attractants and pro-inflammatory cytokines [36]. Gislason (2009) mentioned that macrophages and neutrophils are responsible to secrete a number of mediators which is responsible not just for initiation, but also for progression and persistence of acute or chronic state of inflammation [31]. Finally, monocytes acts as the major agent in tissue clean up and repair. It enters the blood from the bone marrow and circulated for about 72 hours. Then, they enter the tissues and become tissue macrophage. The macrophage becomes activated by lympokines from T lymphocytes [35]. The activated macrophage migrate in respond to chemotactic stimuli and later engulf and destroy bacteria, damaged host cells, as well as dead and dying neutrophils. Besides that, it also acts as antigen presenting cells and activating specific immune response [34]. Edema may also contribute to the tissue clean up. Nitric oxide is responsible for vasodilatation, increase in vascular permeability and edema formation at the site of inflammation [36]. The swelling compresses veins and reduce venous drainage, while it forces open the valve of lympathic capillaries and promote lympathic drainage. The lymphatics can collect and remove bacteria, dead cells, proteins and tissue debris better than blood capillary can. An accumulation of dead cells of neutrophils with other debris tissue and fluid will form pus, a yellowish fluid. It may accumulate in the tissue cavity and known as abcess [32]. Pus is usually absorbed, but sometimes it may be released by its rupture. Blood platelets and the endothelial cells in an area of injury secrete platelet derived growth factor, an agent that stimulates fibroblast to multiply and synthesize collagen. Hyperemia at the same time delivers the oxygen, amino acids and other necessities of protein synthesis, while the hea t of inflamed tissue increases metabolic rate and speed of mitosis and tissue repair. The fibrin clot in inflamed tissues may provide a scaffold for tissue reconstruction [34]. In part, inflammation declines simply because the mediators of inflammation have short half-lives, are degraded after their release, and are produced in quick bursts, only as long as the stimulus persists. In addition as inflammation develops, the process also triggers a variety of stop signals that serve to actively terminate the reaction [38]. Anti-inflammatory Activity Anti-inflammatory refers to the property of a substance or treatment that reduces inflammation. Anti-inflammatory drugs make up about half of analgesics, remedying pain by reducing inflammation as opposed to opioids, which affect the central nervous system. Drugs to control inflammation When healing is complete, the inflammatory process usually subsides [32]. However, an uncontrolled and persistent inflammation that sometimes is triggered by harmless agent such pollen or by an auto immune response. It may act as an etiologic factor for many of these chronic illnesses, where it may induce, maintain or aggravate the disease [29]. As mentioned, the inflammation would occur with the presence of antigen. Thus, constant supply of antigen is available from the food or environment may leads to chronic inflammation and causes diseases such as asthma, arthritis and other autoimmune diseases [31]. In such cases, the defense reaction themselves may cause progressive tissue injury. Hence, anti-inflammatory or immunosuppressive drugs may be necessary to modulate the inflammatory process [37]. Anti-inflammatory drugs are designed to targets the inhibition of the release of these mediators to control inflammation [36]. Harvey and Champe (2008) have classified anti-inflammatory drugs into three category; Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), Cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors (COX-2 inhibitors) and other analgesics [32]. Aspirin is a prototype of traditional NSAIDs. It works by irreversibly inhibit Cyclooxygenase 1 and 2 (COX-1 and 2) enzymes, which results in decreased formation of prostaglandin precursors [40]. Due to this mechanism of action, aspirin also cause adverse effects such as gastric hemorrhages, hypersensitivity and thrombocytopenia [41]. It is becoming a concern of healthcare providers that patients are developing intolerance from day to day. About fifteen percent of patients show intolerance with aspirin. Therefore, newer NSAIDs with greater anti-inflammatory activities are developed. However, the newer NSAIDs are considerably more expensive than aspirin and some have proved to be more toxic in the other way [32]. The second category is COX-2 inhibitor. The mechanism of action is by selectively inhibiting the activity of COX-2 enzyme that results in decreased of prostaglandin precursors [37]. Unlike aspirin, COX-2 inhibitors have an advantage by showing lower risk of developing gastrointestinal bleeding and have no significant effects on platelets [42]. However, this drug is not recommended for renal impaired patients because it may cause renal insufficiency and increase the risk of hypertension [40]. It also has some possible adverse effects recorded in Malaysian Index of Medical Specialities (MIMS) that it may cause allergic reaction, dizziness, headache, rash, upper respiratory infection and gastrointestinal disturbances such as dyspepsia, abdominal pain and diarrheas [41]. Acetaminophen is categorized under other analgesic because it has little or no anti-inflammatory activity [32]. It inhibits the synthesis of prostaglandin in the central nervous system and peripherally blocks pain impulse generations [40]. They have therapeutic advantages over narcotic analgesics which they do not cause physical dependence or tolerance and does not affect platelet function or increase blood clotting time, but it does have many of side effects similar to aspirin [42]. Rarely, skin rash and allergic reaction may appear as the side effects [41]. There are also drugs from autacoids antagonist such as antihistamines used to prevent progress of inflammation. The term antihistamine, without a modifying adjective, refers to the classic H1 receptor blockers [32]. H1 histamine antagonists drugs are develop effectively to target the receptors to treat hay fever and some skin allergies such as urticaria. H1 receptor blockers act on immunoglobulin E (IgE) antibody-sensitizing mast cell [37]. Rheumatoid arthritis is alleviated by drugs, which inhibit the cyclooxygenase enzyme and reduce synthesis of prostanoids, corticosteroids prevent the formation of both prostaglandins and leukotriens by causing the release of lipocortin that leads to inhibition of phospholipase A2 that reduces arachidonic acid release which is able to suppress the inflammation of rheumatoid arthritis and asthma [39]. Anti-cytokines therapy involving target on Interleukin-1b (IL-1b) and tumor necrosis factor-ÃŽÂ ± (TNF-ÃŽÂ ±) that stimulate synovial cells to proliferate and synthesize collagenase, leading to degradation of cartilage, stimulation of bone resorption, and inhibition of proteoglycan synthesis is another method that is effective in treating rheumatoid arthritis [32]. Despite the benefits that the drugs hold, it also carries the side effects. As a result, it may lead various unwanted effects such as to gastric lesions, allergy reactions, tolerance and dependence, as well as resistance [40, 43]. Hence, worldwide researchers are still working to produce the ideal medicines of anti-inflammatory with highest efficacy, best potency and lowest or none side effects. Description of the plant investigated Bauhinia acuminata L. is a species of flowering shrub native to tropical southeastern Asia. The exact native range is obscure due to extensive cultivation, but probably from Malaysia, Indonesia (Java, Borneo, Kalimantan, Lesser Sunda Islands), and the Philippines. It is widely cultivated throughout the tropics as an ornamental plant. It may be found as an escape from cultivation in some areas, and has become naturalized on the Cape York Peninsula, Australia [44]. Common Name Bangla: Shwet Kanchan. Malaysian: Bunga Perak. English: Dwarf White Bauhinia, White Mountain Ebony [45]. Indonesian: Panawar Saribu (Sunda Islands); Kupu-kupu (Java) Thailand: Ka Long, SomSio Burma: Mahahlegabyu India: Kaanchnaara, Kovidaara (Ayurvedic); Kachnaal (Unani); Vellaimandarai (Siddha/Tamil); Kanchan (Assam); Shwetkachnar, Kachnalsafaid (Punjab) Sri Lanka: Sudu Kobalila (Singhalese) Japan: Moku-wan-ju. Taxonomical Hierchy: Kingdom : Plantae Subkingdom : Viridaeplantae Infrakingdom : Streptophyta Division : Tracheophyta Subdivision : Spermatophytina Infradivision : Angiosperms Class : Eudicots Superorder : Rosids Order : Fabales Family : Fabaceae Subfamily : Caesalpiniaceae Genus : Bauhinia Species : B. acuminata Binomial name : Bauhinia acuminata L. Botanical Description: Fig.-1.1: Bauhinia acuminata L. tree. Bauhinia acuminata L. is a member of the Fabaceae family. It is a rapidly growing shrub that can reach up to 3m tall. It rises with several strong, smooth, upright stems with many slender branches; young twigs being pubescent. The stipules are linear-lanceolate measures 1cm long. The leaves are cordate or nearly so are the base, bilobed to about one third of their length with obtuse or acute lobes 9-11 nerve, sparsely pubescent beneath, about 10cm long and broad. The flowers appear at the extremities of the branches 3-4 in a loose bunch with white petals. Thepedicels measure 6-12mm long. The flower buds fusiform, long attenuate at the apex and 5 setaceous dents, measures 3cm long. The calyx-limb laterally splitting, spathaceous; receptacle short. The petals obovate, measure 4cm long and 2cm wide. The stamens 10 all fertile, shorter than the petals; anthers small.The ovary shortly stipitate, sparsely pubescent. The pods are linear-oblong, stipitate, measure 10cm long and 1.5cm wide, d ark brown in colour containing 10 roundish compressed seeds [46, 47]. Traditional uses of Bauhinia acuminata L. The bark and leaves in a decoction helps relieve biliousness [48]. A remedy recommended by the Indian Vaiydas [45]. In Malaysia and Indonesia the plant is used in the treatment of common cold and cough [48]. The root seems to be the part made used of by the Japanese in treating cough and cold. In India the decoction of the leaves and bark is given for allying asthmatic attack. The Indians made used of the bark and leaves in a decoction to treat stones in the bladder, venereal diseases and leprosy [45]. Amongst the Mullu kuruma tribe of Karella the decoction of the bark is used in treating urinary discharge (gonorrhea). They make use of paste of the leaves applied on the throat for throat troubles. It is applied externally to treat skin diseases [49]. The root is boiled in oil and applied to burns and pain [45]. Objective of study To evaluate the free radical scavenging and anti-inflammatory activity of Bauhinia acuminata L. bark extracts in rats. Significance of study Bauhinia acuminata L. is one of the

European Animals The Major Part They Took In Forever Altering the Ecology of the Americas :: essays papers

European Animals The Major Part They Took In Forever Altering the Ecology of the Americas Although the Europeans presence in the Americas from 1492 to many years later caused drastic change in the environment, their part in forever altering the entire American ecosystem was minor when compared to the part of the true criminals: the European animals. The introduction of these European animals into the New World had the most destructive effects on the new environment and everlastingly altered the ecology of the Americas. During the time that pre-dated the arrival of the Europeans, the Americas remained basically untouched and prevailed as virgin land. The land was populated with not just American Indians, but also populated by vast numbers of plants and animals. These inhabitants "lived, died, and bred alone for generation after generation, developing unique cultures and working out tolerances," that is up until 1492, when Columbus and the European conquerors invaded the harmonious land and instantaneously initiated the many long years of corruption. The arrival of the Europeans immediately brought drastic changes to the way things were previously done in the Americas; they "immediately set about to transform as much of the new world as possible into the old world." Because they were people who practiced mixed farming with a heavy emphasis on herding and because they saw only very few domesticated animals in the new land, the Europeans began the action of importing Old World domesticated animals, such as the pig, cow, and horse. This action could most definitely be described as "the greatest biological revolution in the Americas since the end of the Pleistocene era." The Europeans had no idea as to what they unleashed upon the New World when they introduced their domesticated animals. Many of these animals flourished in the new environment beyond the wildest hopes of their European masters. The animals and their diseases "moved through the virgin lands of America faster than did the people who had brought them to the New World." By surpassing their masters, the animals became unstoppable, and their destruction was unfortunately boundless. Pigs, for example, existed as one among the many animal groups that played such a significant role in the changes that wrought the ecology of the New World. Out of all of the imported animals, the pigs adapted quickest to the new environment.